Research subject. In this paper, we set out to investigate main paleostructures in Kazakhstan. In particular, we attempt to clarify or revise their existing geodynamic structures and to show key stages in their development on the basis of new data on the age of some stratigraphic units and rocks of the ophiolitic association.

Materials and methods. The work was based on the materials of long-standing geological research performed by the authors, including government-funded geomapping, tectonic zoning and paleoreconstruction, as well as the revision of literature data.

Results. It is shown that the main sedimentary, volcanogenic, volcanogenic-sedimentary and intrusive complexes were originated in the western part of the Central Asian fold belt (Paleozoic Kazakhstan) in place of various structures differing in their geodynamic environment and tectonic history throughout the Proterozoic and entire Paleozoic periods. The Epigrenville microcontinent disintegrated into individual massifs has been described, along with rift depressions, basins with oceanic crust, island arcs and island arc systems, the Epicaledonian continent, continental depressions, regional volcano-plutonic belts and marginal basins. The tectonic zonality of Kazakhstan has been presented in the form of diagrams. The mapping of the Precambrian Ulutau massif has been conducted. The distribution of the Devonian complexes and the Late Paleozoic complexes of Kazakhstan is schematically represented.

Conclusions. We have refined and partially revised the existing concepts and tectonic consecution on the territory of Kazakhstan. On the basis of paleoreconstructions, key stages in the development of main paleostructures have been established; features of the geological evolution of Kazakhstan paleozoids and their relationship with tectonic processes in the Central Asian fold belt have been determined. It is shown that the modern structure of Kazakhstan paleozoids was evolving over a long period and in many stages for almost 900 million years.

Research subject. In this work, we set out to investigate the petrographic, mineralogical and granulometric composition of tuff-sandstones in the Perekatnaya formation (Albian-Turonian).

Materials and methods. The work was based on the materials obtained during the course of fieldwork in the Ust-Belsky Mountains (Koryak Highlands) undertaken in 2011 and 2016 by researchers from the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The collected samples of sedimentary rocks were comprehensively studied using granulometric and mineralogical analysis based on the petrographic method.

Results. The tuff-sandstones under study were represented by quartz-feldspar, feldspar and proper greywacke. The lithoclast composition was dominated by acidic and intermediate rock fragments. Specimens with a high lithoclast content value were characterized by a lower amount of quartz and feldspars, as well as by a larger grain size. An increase in the proportion of lithoclasts and the coarsening of grains are shown to occur from the southeast to the northwest. This fact has allowed us to establish the direction of material migration from the source area, which was located in the northwestern part of the region. According to the results of granulometric and mineralogical studies, the sediments appear to have been formed by high-speed turbidity currents under moderately deep marine conditions and at a relatively little distance from the coast, where the rivers (their deltas) provided sufficient amount of clastic material.

Conclusion. The obtained data confirm the assumptions about the evolution of the Perekatnaya formation under marine conditions on a continental margin (slope). The conditions for the sedimentation of the tuff-sandstones under study can be compared with those typical of areas in the vicinity of river deltas and/or prodelts. The sedimentation occurred concurrently with volcanism, which was associated with the existence of an active continental margin (Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanoplutonic belt).

Subject of research. The upper Permian reefs of the Yangtze block of southern China are considered. Among them there are two species which differ in location in the basin and the nature of the internal structure.

Methods and results. On the basis of geological and lithological methods of research it is shown that the main rift builders were a variety of sponges, whith a lesser extent bryozoans and wide development of non-carcass organisms. Along with relatively simple buildings (biostromes), the reefs in the strict sense of this term are also established. The beginning of reef formation is fixed by the accumulation of detritus of echinoderms with micro-grain cemented material. Reef formation ended until the end of Permian, before bulk biota extinction on the border of Permian and Triassic although potentially reef-building organisms still existed.

Conclusion. The events that led to the great mass extinction were preceded by certain changes, which primarily destroyed the system of reef biocenosis, which led to the cessation of the formation of reefs with the continued existence of individual groups of organisms.

Research subject. In this article, we present the results of comparative mineralogical and geochemical studies of organic remains and coprolites from the Lower Triassic and Paleogene continental deposits of the Northern Urals and East Kazakhstan.

Methods. The studies were conducted using a wide range of analytical methods, including optical microscopy; chemical analysis; determination of C_org content; thermal and powder X-ray diffraction analysis; spectroscopy; scanning electron microscopy; X-ray fluorescence analysis; isotopic analysis gas pyrochromatography; inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

Results. A significant concentration of fish bones, teeth and scales, as well as coprolites of labyrinthodonts were identified in the Lower Triassic and Paleogene continental-marine terrigenous and carbonate-terrigenous sedimentary rocks of the Northern Urals and East Kazakhstan. In terms of mineral composition, the fossils and coprolites are found to be almost completely composed of B-type carbonate apatite. The phase-heterogeneous impurities in the coprolites are represented by calcite, siderite, barite, polycomponent carbonates of the MnCO₃–FeCO₃–MgCO₃–CaCO₃ system and pyrite. It should be noted that pyrite demonstrates octahedral habitus, which is rather rare for this mineral. The ratio of the essential and xenobiotic elemental concentrations differs for the Lower Triassic and Paleogene coprolites, reaching 0.17 and 0.35 on average, respectively. For the first time, information has been given on the content of lithogenic gases in coprolites and the isotopic composition of the impurity carbonaceous material. According to this data, Lower Triassic labyrinthodonts could feed on plants, as well as herbivorous and carnivorous fish.

Conclusion. The findings of coprolites in the Northern Urals and East Kazakhstan in a wide Meso-Cenozoic chronological range and in highly different geological settings indicate the probability of a much wider development of coprogenic-phosphate sedimentary rocks in nature than it has been previously considered. Under a high concentration of coprolites, these rocks can serve as a new and extremely valuable type of phosphorite raw materials, the utilization of which would not require any preliminary treatment.

Research subject. High-magnesium rocks associated with the granitoid massifs of the Urals are represented by gabbro-diorites and their melanocratic varieties (hornblendites), as well as by diorites and quartz diorites. These rocks are composed of amphibole porphyrocrists frequently combined with clinopyroxene and phlogopite immersed in a basis of acid plagioclase with interstitial quartz and potassium feldspar. In addition to a high magnesium content of 0.5–0.8 units, these rocks are characterized by extremely high chromium contents of up to 1200 ppm.

Methods. The study of the composition of high-magnesium rocks was performed using an ELAN 9000 inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer, an SX-100 Cameca electron probe microanalyzer and an energy dispersive device INCAEnergy 450 X-Max 80. The detection limit for Cr₂O₃ was equal to 0.05 wt. % and 0.2 wt. % for the microanalyzer and the energy dispersive device, respectively. 

Results. The two main mineral associations related to magmatic and post-magmatic processes are found to be different in terms of chromium behaviour. The average concentrations of chromium oxide in the minerals from the magmatic association varied within the range (wt. %) of 0.10–0.50, 0.29–0.68, 0.08-0.36 and 0.0–1.6 for different samples of clinopyroxene, amphibole, phlogopite and their variations, respectively. The post-magnetic association included minerals representing the products of postmagmatic (hydrothermal) transformation of pyroxenes and alumina amphibole into low-alumina magnesia hornblende, actinolite, titanite, epidote and muscovite. The transformation of chromospinelide at this stage had been accompanied by exchange processes with silicates, as a result of which the silicates were enriched with chromium. The average concentrations of chromium oxide in the minerals of this association were (wt. %) 0.24–0.80, 1.38–3.08, 1.03 and 3.5 in the samples of amphibole, epidote, titanite and muscovite, respectively.

Conclusion. It is assumed that the crystallization of the early association of iron-magnesium silicates proceeded from aqueous high-magnesium melts. The subsequent post-magmatic change of such silicates led to the development of phases with a similar and occasionally higher chromium content. This fact can be explained by the interaction of silicates with chromite under the conditions of low fluid oxidation, which was insufficient for the formation of magnetite.

Research subject. This article presents data on the geological position of the Oyu hypabyssal complex. The aim of the study was to investigate the mineralogical, petrographic and petrological characteristics of dolerites deposited herein and to carry out their isotope dating.

Materials and methods. The material for research was obtained during the course of geological fieldwork across. Field research and sampling of the Oyu complex was carried out in the southern part of the Yamb-Pe ridge. The subsequent investigation was performed for 21 dolerite samples (petrographic description, XRF and ICP-MS methods) and 26 zircon grains isolated from a single dolerite sample for isotopic dating (SHRIMP-II method).

Results. The rocks of the Oyu complex are identified in the Lower Palaeozoic sequences of the Lemva zone of Pai-Khoi, where they form swarmof layered bodies and dykes with the thickness of the first meters–tens of meters and a length from 100 m to 1.5–2 km. The intrusions are located in the Middle-Late Ordovician sequences of the Khengur and Talbeytyvis formations and uncover in the Yamb-Pe structures and the right bank of the Bol’shaya Oyu river. The rocks of the complex have a distinct hypabyssal appearance, which is expressed in developed amygdaloidal, porphyry and glassy textures. According to petrographic data, two varieties of rocks – dolerites and leucodolerites – have been identified. Secondary changes have been described as propylitization and albitization. The rocks in the complex are enriched with SiO₂ (43.05–51.10 wt %) and correspond to the subalkaline series (sodium and potassium-sodium type of alkalinity). Oys dolerites are enriched in LILE (Rb, Ba, K, Sr), though being depleted in HFSE (Th, Nb, Ta, Ti, Zr, Hf). The total content of REE (La + Sm + Yb) is established to be 21.17 (13.57–33.65) ppm, with the distribution showing a downward trend and the Eu-anomaly being not pronounced. The isotope dating of zircons (SHRIMP II) has confirmed the absolute age of dolerites in the Oyu complex to be 313.2 ± 2.6 Ma.

Conclusions. The conducted comparison of the obtained data with those for gabbro and gabbrodolerites in the Khengur hypabyssal complex has revealed a paragenetic connection of the magmatic chambers of the Oyu and Khengur intrusions. A hypothesis has been proposed that links submarine hydrothermal processes with the intrusions of hypabyssal dolerite bodies. Such a hydrothermal activity is likely to have resulted in paleohydrothermal structures of "white smokers" and barite hydrothermal-sedimentary ore bodies, which are localized in the Lower-Middle Carbon Lemva formation.

Research subject. This study was aimed at examining iron ore and ore-bearing strata in the Pervy Severny iron ore district in the Northern part of the Tagil depression. This area features several ore occurrences and three small industrial objects, which have been almost completely exhausted, namely the Pervoe Severnoe, Sukhodoyskoye and Peshchernoe deposits.

Materials and methods. The research was based on the analysis of published materials and available production reports on the aforementioned objects, as well as the author’s own field observations and search for similar deposits in literature sources.

Results. It has thus far been believed that magnetite ores were formed by contact-metasomatic interaction of Givetian limestone and the intrusions of dolerites and gabbrodiorites. However, the area under study is characterized by very few typical skarns. In addition, the ore bodies here are deposited in accordance with sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Iron ore deposits in the Lan-Dill Region in Germany seem to be the closest analogue, which suggests an alternative (volcanogenic-sedimentary) model of the formation of iron ore deposits in the Pervy Severny iron ore district.

Conclusion. The use of the volcanogenic-sedimentary model allows search criteria to be specified, thus significantly increasing prospects of detection of new industrial iron ore deposits.

Research subject. To date, two different-age regional sources of noble metals have been identified in the North Caucasus: 1) Caledonian, which includes ultrabasites of the Front Range (Au, Pt, Pd) and 2) Hercynian, which features copper-pyrite (Au) and black-shale deposits (Au, Pt, Pd). Noble metals in these sources form large areal accumulations and ore anomalies, thus presenting a great research interest.

Materials and methods. This paper reports the results of a long-term geological fieldwork, which consisted in a detailed geological and mineralogical mapping of the Devonian shale and volcanic rocks, as well as of the Ordovician ultrabasites, in the North Caucasus. During this work, maps, diagrams and sections of ore mineralization sites were complied, and collection of lithogeochemical, ore and groove samples was conducted. Laboratory studies included the examination of the obtained samples using geochemical, petrographic, mineragraphic and physico-mineralogical methods.

Results. The main sources of Au, Pt and Pd, as well as the genetic types of their deposits were established. Four different-age geochemical anomalies (fields) with a constant total Au, Pt and Pd content of over than 1 g/t were identified.

Conclusion. Large-scale Au, Pt and Pd anomalies in the North Caucasus have been discovered, which form a new North Caucasian province of noble metals.

1.            Classification is one of the main elements of man’s thinking. Its roots have been laid in the man’s thinking at biological, subconscious level. To overcome the intuitive component of the research of classification problematics reflection (ideas about ideas) is needed. A great amount of studies on different classification questions is widely published. To make this amount visible seems to be useful.

2.            A great number of questions connected to classification is supposed to be called “classiology” science. The following parts are suggested to be identified in it.

Introduction into the problem.

Preliminary positions (prolegomena). Basic notions and preliminary problematics, which are to be adopted or stated before considering the classification problems are included.

Classiology(s. s.) is subdivided into two part - general questions and systematic part.

In general questions of classiology (s. s.) its basis notions are defined:

1)            class system - classification, science about it - the science of classification;

2)            procedure of class system construction - classifying, the science about it - systematization;

3)            procedure of the referring of the object to one of the system's classes - diagnosis, the science about it - diagnostics;

4)            notion, binding notions 1-3 - classiosystem, science about classiosystems - syncretic classiology (synclassiology).

According to the variety of classiology activities - general, branch and concrete classiology are suggested to be identified. Systematization classiology (s.s.) consists of structures, defined by the titles of the notions.

3.            Geological classiology and biological classiology (biological systematics) are parts of the suggested system of classiology. They are referred to the subdivision “Branch classiology”. These segments are fractally so vast as classiology in general. And they can also be made visible fractally transporting to them the structure of the system of classiology as a whole.

GEOLOGICAL CLASSIOLOGY Introductory part

Preliminary positions (geoprolegomena) Geological classiology (s.s.)

General question of geological classiology Systematic geological classiology

General geological classiology Branch geological classiology Concrete geological classiology

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIOLOGY (BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMATICS) Introductory part

Preliminary positions (bioprolegomena)

Biological classiology (s.s.) (Biological systematics) General question of biological systematics Systematic biological classiology

General biological classiology Branch biological classiology Concrete biological classiology.